Vedic Literature| The Veda & Vedic Literature | Vedic Literature

The antiquity of the Veda has been a subject of discussion and dispute. According to the ancient Indian tradition it is impossible to determine the period of the composition of the Veda. It is, however, universally acknowledged by historians that the Veda is the earliest available collection of the most ancient body of knowledge. According to one Indian historian, Shri Avinash Chandra Das, the Veda could have been composed any time between 250 and 750 BC. According to Lokamanya Tilak, the estimated period would be any time between the forty-fifth and fiftieth centuries BC. This coincides with the view of Professor Haug, Professor Ludwig, and Professor Jacobi. Professor Whitney places this period and time between the fifteenth and twentieth centuries BC, while Professor Weber places it any time between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries BC. Professor Max Muller believes that the Veda was composed during the thirteenth century BC.

According to the Brihadaranyakopanisad, all the four Vedas, the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are the breath of the Supreme Lord.

Asya mahato bhutasya nidhasitam etad yad rigvedo yajurvedaha samavedo atharvangirasaha

According to Manu Smrti, the entire Veda is luminous with knowledge. It is believed that in its original condition the Veda was one, and it was Rishi Vyasa who divided it into four parts. For this reason, Rishi Vyasa is known as Vedavyasa. The four Vedas have been divided in many ways under the categories of mandala, ashtaka, sukta, anuvaak, khaanda, prashna, chhanda, etc. Every word of the poetic and prose composition of the Veda has been counted and fixed. The entire collection of mantras is called 'Samhitaa'. According to one view, the word Veda is applicable to both the collection of mantras (inevitable expression of poetic inspiration and revelation) and the Brahmanas. The Brahmanas are supposed to be a detailed analysis and commentary on the collection of mantras. The Brahmanas again are divided into three parts: (i) Brahmanas, (ii) Aaranyakas and (iii) Upanisads. In the Brahmanas, there is a detailed statement and explanation of various kinds of sacrifices and their ceremonies and rituals. The Aranyakas are much more esoteric and the Upanisads expound the knowledge contained in the Vedas. The Upanisads are also called Vedanta. At a later period, Rishi Badarayana Vyasa composed the Brahma-sutras or Sarirak-sutras in order to present the Upanisads in an organized form. At a still later period, the Bhagavad-Gita was composed as part of the great Mahabharata, and it is considered to be the quintessence of the Upanisads. The Upanisads, Brahma-sutras and Bhagavad-Gita are collectively the Prasthanatrayi.

Vedic literature mainly consists of Mantra Samhita, Brahmanas, Aaranyakas and Upanisads. In understanding the Mantra Samhita, the study of Braahmanas, Aaranyakas and Upanisads is considered to be essential, and the study of the Brahma-sutras and Bhagavad-Gita is also considered to be necessary. Vedic literature also includes six additional works, which are supposed to be aids in understanding the Veda. They are: (i) Siksha, (ii) Kalpa, (iii) Vyakarana, (iv) Nirukta, (v) Chhanda and (vi) Jyotisa. Each one of them is called Vedaanga.

Connected with the rituals and ceremonies of Vedic sacrifices (Vedic karmakaanda), is the Vedaanga known as Kalpa. The Kalpa Vedaanga is in the form of a sutra, and it is thus aphoristic in character. The totality of the Kalpa Vedaanga and its literature is three-fold, consisting of the Srauta-sutra, Grhya-sutras and Dharma-sutras. For each Veda, there are separate systems of Srauta-sutras, Grhya-sutras and Dharma-sutras. Some of the famous Srauta-sutras are Saankhaayana, Aasvalaayan, Aarsheya, Aapastamba, Baudhaayana and Kaatyaayana. Among the Grhya-sutras are included Saankhaayana, Hiranyakesi, Aapastamba, Baudhaayana, Kaathaka, Paaraaskaara, Kaushika, etc. Among the Dharmasutras are included Gautama Dharma-sutra, Aapastamba Dharma-sutra, Hiranyakesi Dharma-sutra, Baudhaayana Dharma-sutra, Vasistha Dharma-sutra.

In addition to these three categories of Kalpa-sutras, there is the fourth category known as Shulba-sutra, which is regarded to be the origin of the ancient science of Geometry. The three most famous Shulba-sutras are those of Aapastamba, Baudhaayana and Kaatyaayana. As in the case of Kalpa Vedaanga, each of the Vedaangas has further subsidiary literature. All this and much more may be regarded to constitute the vast Vedic literature. Itihaasa, Puranas and Vedic systems of philosophy also are included as parts of Vedic literature.

But, as mentioned above, the core of Vedic literature consists mainly of Mantra Samhita, Braahmanas, Aaranyakas and Upanisads.

Among the Vedas, the Rigveda occupies a prominent place. The Rigveda consists of 10 books or mandalas and 1,017 hymns or suktas. The total number of verses in the Rigveda is 10,580. Even the words and letters of the Rigveda have been counted. The number of words in the Rigveda is 1,53,826 and the number of letters is 4,32,000. Some of the great poets who have received the mantras include Vasistha, Viswaamitra, Vaamadeva, Bhaaradwaaja, Atri, Madhuchhandas. Six each of the mandalas or books are given to the hymns of a single rishi or family of rishis. Thus the second mandala is devoted chiefly to the suktas of Rishi Gritsamada, the third and the seventh similarly to the great Viswaamitra and Vasistha, respectively, the fourth to Vaamadeva and Vasistha, respectively, the fourth to Vaamadeva, the sixth to Bhaaradwaaja. The fifth is occupied by the hymns of the House of Atri. In each of these mandalas the sutras addressed to Agni are first collected together, followed by those of which Indra is the deity; the invocations of other gods, Brhaspati, Surya, the Ribhus, Usa, etc, close the mandalas. The whole book, the ninth, is given to a single god, Soma. The first, eighth and tenth mandalas are a collection of sutras by various rishis, but the hymns of each seer are ordinarily placed together in the order of their deities, Agni leading, Indra following, the other gods succeeding.

We can also see a certain principle of thought development in the arrangement of the Vedic hymns. The opening mandala seems to have been so designed that the general thought of the Veda in its various elements should correctly unroll itself under the cover of the established symbols by the voices of a certain number of rishis almost all of whom rank high as thinkers and sacred singers and some of whom are among the most famous names of the Vedic tradition. It is also significant that the tenth or closing mandala gives us, with an even greater miscellaneity of authors, the last development of the thought of the Veda, and some of the most modern in the language of its sutras. It is here that we find the 'sacrifice of Purusha' and the great 'hymn of the Creation'. It is here also that modern scholars think that they discover the first origins of Vedaantic philosophy, the Brahmavaada.

Sacrifice was the principal institution and symbol of the Vedic tradition and knowledge. Sacrifice or yajna symbolizes inner submission, consecration, and surrender to higher powers, gods, and the Supreme. Outwardly, this submission was translated into an elaborate ritual of collecting sacrificial materials, lighting them in order to kindle the sacrificial fire and offering to that fire articles of various kinds, including clarified butter, grains and other materials. This entire procedure was accompanied by recitation of appropriate mantras or hymns, sung in a prescribed methodical manner, often marked by appropriate hand movements and other gestures or mudraas. The esoteric teaching of the Veda included the idea that human life is a journey, looked upon as a journey of sacrifice to be performed with minute care and attention to discipline and self-control by means of which obstacles in the journey can be overcome and many-sided achievements at various levels of existence can be attained. A close connection was conceived between the word, the idea, and the reality, and it was supposed that words opened up the gates of ideas and ideas opened up the gates of the realization of reality. It was against this background that the ritual of yajna was perfected in great detail, and apart from the worship, great attention was paid to the performance of sacrifice. The priest who performed the entire procedure of their sacrifice was called Adhvaryu, and the mantras, which were used by the Adhvaryu in the performance of yajna constituted the Yajur-Veda. The Yajur-Veda is, therefore also called Adhvaryu-Veda. Yajur-Veda is principally a composition in prose.

According to the Matsyapuraana, the Yajur-Veda was the only Veda in the beginning. The same view is repeated in the Vayupuraana and Vishnupuraana. It was Vedavyaasa who arranged the four Samhitas according to the requirements of the processes of symbolic sacrifice, and he transmitted the Rig-Veda to Paila, the Yajur-Veda to Vaishampaayana, the Sama-Veda to Jaimini, and the Atharva-Veda to Sumantu. In due course, they transmitted them to their pupils, and thereafter there developed the tradition of transmission by oral tradition from teacher to pupil. In this fashion, there came about a development of various recensions or sakhas of various Vedas. In the Bhagavata and in several Puraanas there is a detailed description of the various sakhas of the Vedas; we have a similar description in Saantiparva (Chapter 342) of the Mahabharata: we also have organized information on the sakhas of the Vedas in Charanavyuha. There are three notable books of the Charanavyuha attributed, respectively, to Shaunaka, Kaatyaayana and Vyasa.

The total number of sakhas is believed to be 1,131, but at present only 10 sakhas remain alive. As far as the Rig-Veda is concerned, only one sakha, Shakala sakha, remains alive out of the 21, which existed at one time. There is a claim that Sankhyaayana sakha is still known to a few Vedapaathis in Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat, but this is not certain. As for as the Yajur-Veda is concerned, Patanjali had 101 sakhas. But today only 5 sakhas are alive. In fact, the Yajur-Veda is classified broadly into Sukla Yajur-Veda and Krishna Yajur-Veda. Sukla Yajur-Veda is also known as Vaajasaneni. The Vaajasaneyi Samhita has 30 Adhyayas or chapters, 303 anuvaks, 1,975 kandikas, 29, 625 words, and 88,875 letters. There are two extant sakhas of Sukla or Vaajasaneyi Yajur-Veda, namely, Kanva and Madhyandina. The Krishna Yajur-Veda has 5 extant sakhas, namely, Aapastamba (Taittiriya), Hiranyakesi (Kapishthala), Katha, Kaathaka and Kaalaapa or Maitraayani. The Maitraayani Samhita has 4 Kandas, which are subdivided into prapaathakas. In this Samhita, there are 3,144 mantras, of which 1,701 are rks from the Rig-Veda. In this Samhita we have mantras and rituals of important sacrifices like Chaaturnmaasya, Vaajapeya, Aswamedha, Raajasuya, Sautraamani, etc. The Taittiriya Samhita has 7 Kandas, 44 prapaathakas and 631 anuvaks. In this Samhita, we have a description of sacrifices like Raajasuya, Yajamaana, Paurodaasha, etc.

Apart from adhvaryu, there is also an Udgaata in a sacrifice, who sings certain specific mantras. The collection of mantras meant for Udgaata has been called the Sama-Veda. Both in Charanavyuha and in Patanjali Mahaabhaashya it is indicated that the Sama-Veda has 1000 sakhas. The Sama-Veda is musical in character, and it contains only those riks, which can appropriately be sung. There are 1,549 riks in Sama-Veda. At present, the Sama-Veda has only 3 existing Sakhas, namely Kauthuma, Raanaayaniya, and Jaiminiya.

The riks are transformed into songs of Sama by appropriate addition of words or stobhas, such as haa, u, ho, I, o, hu, oh, haa, etc.

Apart from 'Hota' connected with the Rig-Veda, 'Adhvaryu' connected with the Yajur-Veda, 'Udgaata' connected with the Sama-Veda, there is a fourth priest called Brahma who is supposed to be a specialist in all the four Vedas, including the Atharva-Veda. The Rig-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Sama-Veda are collectively called Vedatrayi, although it has a significant place in the Karmakaanda of the Vedas. The Atharva-Veda has two kinds of mantras, those relating to the cure of diseases and destruction of wild animals, pisachas and enemies, and those relating to establishment of peace in the family and village as also those relating to health, wealth, protection, and friendship with enemies. The origin of Ayurveda is to be found in the Atharva-Veda.

The Samhita of the Atharva-Veda has 20 kandas, which have 34 Prapatakas, 111 anuvaka, 739 suktas and 5,849 mantras. About 1,200 mantras are common with those of the Rig-Veda. One-sixth of the Atharva-Veda is in prose style while the rest is poetic.

Patanjali has indicated that the Atharva-Veda has 9 sakhas, but today we have only 2 sakhas, namely, paippalada and Saunaka.

Apart from the four Vedas and their numerous sakhas, there is a vast literature of Brahmanas. The appendices of the Brahmanas, which are partly in prose and partly in poetic form, are called Aaranyakas. Aaranyakas are so called because there was a tradition to study them in forests. Some Upanisads are also included in Aaranyakas; hence it is almost impossible to make a definite boundary-line between Aaranyakas and Upanisads. Brahmanas contain a detailed analysis of various categories of sacrifices, their rituals, and procedures. Brahmanas include collections of history, legends, anecdotes and narration of stories connected with individuals. A synonym of the word 'Brahmanas' is 'Pravachana'. Pravachana means exposition; hence Brahmanas are looked upon as expositions of various aspects of the Vedas. The Brahmana literature seems to have been every vast but a number of Brahmanas have been lost.

Each of the recensions of the Vedas had a separate Brahmana. Brahmanas were instructed simultaneously with the different recensions of the Vedas. The Aitareya Brahmana belongs to the Shakala sakha of the Rigveda, while the Kaushitaki (Saankhaayana) Brahmana is connected with the Sukla Yajur-Veda, and the Taittiriya Brahmana is connected with Bashkala sakha of the Rig-Veda. The Satapatha Brahmana is connected with Sukla Yajur-Veda, while Taittiriya Brahmana and Kaathaka Brahmana are connected with the Krishna Yajur-Veda. The Sama-Veda has several Brahmanas including Jaiminiya, Arsheya, Mantra, Saamavidhaana, Devataadhaaya Vansha, Panchavinsha Shadavinsha. The Gopatha Brahmana belongs to the Atharva-Veda.

Among the lost Brahmanas, the important ones are Paimgaayani Brahmana, Aasvalaayana Brahmana, Kaathava Brahmana, Gaalav Brahmana, Charak Brahmana, Svetaasvatara Brahmana, Maitrayaani Brahmana, Jhaabaalak Brahmana, Khandikeya Brahmana, Rauraki Brahmana, Shatyaayana Brahmana, Talavakra Brahmana, Aaruneya Brahmana, Paaraashara Brahmana, and Kaapeya Brahmana.

According to many ancient scholars, the hymns of the four Vedas and their explanations in the Brahmanas both together constitute the Veda. The Brahmanas have been throughout respected as the Vedas themselves. The rituals have been performed considering the Brahmanas as equal to the Vedas. In the nineteenth century, however, Maharshi Dayananda Saraswati expressed the view that the Brahmanas are not the Vedas themselves. According to him, while the Vedas were revealed, the Brahmanas were not, although the seers expressed them. He advanced a number of reasons to establish his viewpoint, and they deserve an impartial study. In any case, it has to be stated that the language of the Brahmanas is not similar to that of the Vedic hymns. Some believe that Brahmanas contain an explanation of the Veda and they are couched in the language of Pravachana. They are therefore Vedic, but not the Vedas themselves. There is, however no dispute about the fact that Brahmanas are looked upon as elucidation or interpretations of Veda, and this itself implies the superiority of the Veda as far as the question of authenticity is concerned.

There is no doubt that the Brahmanas were much more close in time to the Vedas than any other Vedic literature; at the same time, it is well known that the Brahmanas concentrated on Karmakanda rather than on Jnanakanda. As far as Jnanakanda is concerned, we have a vast literature of Aaranyakas and Upanisads. Aaranyakas and Upanisads are collectively called Vedanta, since they constitute the last part of the fundamental core of Vedic literature.

The main subject dealt with in the Aaranyakas is the esoteric meaning of sacrifices, their rituals as also the inner meaning of the conduct related to the system of Varnaasrama. The Aitareya and Kaushitaki Aaranyakas are related to the Rig-Veda, the Taittiriya and Saankhyaayana Aaranyakas are related to the Krishna Yajur-Veda, while Brhadaaranyaka is related to Sukla Yajur-Veda. Talavakara Aaranyaka belongs to Jaiminiya Sakha of Sama-Veda; and in fact this Aaranyaka is Jaiminiya-Brahmanopanisadbrahmana, and this Brahmana contains Aaranyaka and Upanisad as well.

The most important Aaranyaka is the Aitareya Aaranyaka of the Rig-Veda. This Aaranyaka consists of 18 chapters, and each chapter is divided into a number of khandas. As mentioned earlier, Aaranyakas deal with the inner meanings of various sacrifices, observances, and rituals.

The spiritual meaning of the Veda is largely to be found in Upanisads. The word Upanisad really means the secret teaching that enters into the ultimate truth. This secret is normally transmitted and received when the disciple sits close to the teacher, and when the consciousness of the teacher and pupil vibrates in harmony, so that even in silence the secret truth can be transmitted and received. Among the Upanisads the following 10 are considered to be most important: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taittiriya, Chhaandogya, Aitareya, and Brhadaaranyaka. Sankaraachaya has also referred to 5 other Upanisads in his commentaries, and these 5 also have been given prominence as far as the spiritual knowledge of ultimate reality is concerned. They are: Svetaasvatara, Mahaanaaraayana, Maitraayani, Kausitaki, and Nrisimhataapini.

In the Muktopanisad, it is mentioned that the total number of Upanisads is 108, and they are derived from the four Vedas as follows: (1) Rig-Veda 10 Upanisads; (2) Sukla Yajur-Veda: 19 Upanisads; (3) Krishna Yajur-Veda: 32 Upanisads; (4) Sama-Veda: 16 Upanisads; and (5) Atharva-Veda: 31 Upanisads. 'The Muktopanisad also lays down that the process of the realization of Brahman, the ultimate reality, begins with Brahmajijnasa, aspiration to know Brahman, and it continues through the hearing of the Upanisads, reflection on the Upanisads and dwelling on the Upanisads.

Isa, Kena, Katha, Manduka, Svetaasvatara and Mahaanaaraayaana are poetic compositions and they have great literary merits. The Atharva-Veda has many Upanisads, and among these Upnisads there are some which are even non-Vedic, in the sense that they have connection with the Puraanas and Tantra. If the entire Upanisadic literature is taken into account, there are at least 250 Upanisads.

The important Upanisads and their connections with the Vedas may briefly be stated as follows:

Aitareya, Maandukya and Kaushitaki are related to the Rig-Veda;

Taittiriya, Katha, and Svetaasvatara are connected with the Krishna Yajur-Veda.

Kena and Chhaandogya are related to the Sama-Veda; and

Prasna and Mundaka are related to the Atharva-Veda.

In spite of the fact that the Upanisads are not as remote as the Veda in respect of language and symbolism, they are extremely difficult to understand. The Upanisads should be looked upon as vehicles of illumination and not of instruction; they were composed for seekers who already had a general familiarity with the ideas of Vedic and Vedantic seers and even some personal experience of the truths on which they were founded. This is why they dispense in their style with expressed transitions of thought and the development of implied or subordinate notions. Very often one single word or sentence reposes on a number of ideas implicit in the text, but nowhere set forth explicitly. The reasoning that supports conclusions is often suggested by words but is not expressly conveyed to the intelligence. The reader, or rather the hearer, is supposed to proceed from light to light, confirming his intuition and verifying by his experience, not submitting the ideas to the judgments of logical reason. As a result, the Upanisads demand a good deal of patience, quietude, and concentration, if we are to understand them properly. Even then it is difficult to penetrate into the inner meaning of the Upanisads.

There have been numerous commentators, and during the middle ages, there have been sharp differences of opinion even, as to the fundamental principles of the philosophy of the Upanisads. This has given rise to at least five major schools of Upanisadic interpretation. These are: Advaitavada or the Monism of Sankaracharya, Visistaadvaita or the Qualified Monism of Ramanujacharya, Vishuddhaadvaita or the Pure Monism of Vallabhacharya, Dvaitaadvaitavaada or the Dualism-non-Dualism of Nimbaarkaacharya, and Dvaitavaada or the Dualism of Madhwacharya. The commentaries of these great Acharyas are commentaries on Brahma-sutras, which was composed by Baadaraayana (Vyaasa Rishi) in which the secret of the Upanisads was expounded aphoristically. Their disciples have further commented upon the commentaries of the Acharyas and there have been commentaries on commentaries. The Bhagavad-Gita is also considered to be an organized exposition of the essence of Upanisadic teaching; but the Bhagavad-Gita also has been interpreted different by different Acharyas, and there have been a number of commentaries on the Bhagavad-Gita. The commentary literature on the Upanisads, Brahma-sutras, and Bhagavad-Gita is continuing to develop even in our own times.

Vedic literature includes in its comprehensive sense Vedaanga literature as well. Vedaanga literature began to develop even before the Upanisads. Mundaka Upanisad mentions six Vedaangas as follows: (i) Siksha, (ii) Kalpa, (iii) Vyakarana, (iv) Nirukta, (v) Chhanda, and (vi) Jhotisa. Each Vedaanga takes up one aspect of the Veda and an attempt is made to explain it.

Siksha is related to sound, letters, pronunciation, the method of teaching and learning of these basic elements. Every Veda has its own peculiar pronunciation of certain letters, and each one of them has its specific modes and speed of recitation. A book called Siksha Sangraha contains a collection of 32 systems of siksha. These systems relate to different sakhas of the four Vedas. The most important among the books relating to siksha is the famous Paniniya Siksha. Another important book is Yaajnavalkya Siksha. In Vasishthi Siksha we have a detailed account of the differences between the mantras of the Rig-Veda and Yajur-Veda. Both Yaajnavalkya siksha and Vasishthi siksa are related to the Vajasaneyi Samhita. The other important works are: Katyaayani siksha, Paaraashari siksha, Maadhyandini Siksha, Keshavi Siksha and Manduki Siksha. In Naaradiya Siksha, which is related to the Sama-Veda, there is supposed to be the knowledge of the secret of different sounds.

The development of Siksha as a Vedaanga and as a science demonstrates the profundity and vast scope of research that was undertaken in respect of pronunciation in ancient India. It is because of this Vedaanga that the system of Vedic recitation has remained intact right from the ancient times to the present day. A given sakha is recited in the same way all over the country, and Vedapaathis of the same sakha, belonging to different parts of India, pronounce mantras with the same intonation, speed and strength and force and even the same hand movements. If the Vedaanga system of pronunciation has remained so uniform in the country, and if the tradition has remained so powerful, it is because of the degree of perfection that was achieved in respect of Siksha.

Vedic religion involves complex ritualistic Karmakaanda (system of prescribed acts and sacrifices). A detailed understanding of this Karmakaanda became necessary in due course of time, and this gave rise to a vast literature of Kalpasutra. Kalpa means that which is understood or justified in respect of sacrifices and other prescribed acts and rituals. Karmakaanda is three-fold: Srauta-sutras, which are connected with sacrifices laid down in Sruti or Veda; Grhya-sutras, which are related to various rituals connected with the life of the householder, and various Samskaaras which are laid down for important occasions of life starting from birth up to death; and Dharma-sutrras which are related to social, political and other benevolent duties. The entire Kalpa literature is Sutra literature, since it is composed aphoristically. There is also the fourth category of Kalpa-sutra, which is known as Shulba-sutra, and which is related to the science of geometry and architecture connected with the construction of sacrificial altars, fire-vessels and other related structures.

Corresponding to each Veda there are various Srauta-sutras. Saankhyaayana and Aaswalaayana pertain to the Rig-Veda; Arsheya (or Maashaka), Laahyaayana and Draahyaayana belong to the Sama-Veda; Aapastamba, Hiranyakeshi, Baudhaayana, Bhaaradwaja and Vaikaanasa are related to the Taittiriya sakha of the Krishna Yajur-Veda; Maanava Srauta-sutra is related to Maitrayani sakha of Krishna Yajur-Veda (this Sutra is believed to be the basis of the famous Manu Smrti); Kaatyaayana Srauta-sutra is related to the Sukla yajur-Veda; Vaitaana Sutra is related to the Atharva-Veda, and this Sutra is also related to Gopatha Brahamana and Kaatyaayana Srauta-sutra of Yajur-Veda.

The sacrificial priest needs to have appropriate knowledge of all the Srauta-sutras connected with the four Vedas. In some of the sacrifices, as many as 16 priests are required. There are 14 kinds of sacrificial acts, of which 7 are Havir yajna and 7 are Soma yajna. Of the Havir yajna the important sacrifices are those of Darshapoornamaasya and Chaturmaasya. In Soma-yajna the important ritual is that of Agnistoma. Soma-yajnas are of three kinds, those, which are for one day (ekaaha), those of twelve days (dwaadashaaha), and those of many more days (anekaaha). Agnichayana connected with Somayajna continues for one complete year.

Grhya-sutras, which come after Srauta-sutras, also belong to different Vedas. Saankhaayayana Grhya-sutras are related to the Rig-Veda; Gomila and Khaadira belong to Saambhavya Grhya-sutra, and Aasvalaayana Grhya-sutra to Sama-Veda; Aapastamba, Hiranyakesi, Baudhaayana, Maanava, Kaathaka, Bhaaradwaaja and Vaikhaanasa belong to Krishna Yajur-Veda, while Paaraskara belongs to Sukla Yajur-Veda; Kausika Grhya-sutra belongs to Atharva-Veda.

The various rituals described in Srauta-sutras require three different kinds of Agnikundas (fire-vessels), which are called Garhapatya, Aahavaniya and Dakshina, while in the Deva-yajna prescribed by Grhya-sutra only one Agnikunda is required.

Among the Dharma-sutras, Gautama Dharma-sutra is related to Sama-Veda, and Aapastamba, Hiranyakeshi, and Baudhyaayana are related to Krishna Yajur-Veda. But Dharma-sutras such as Gautama, Vasistha, Maanuva, Vaikhanasa and Vishnu are not related to any specific Veda sakha.

The word 'Dharma' has been used in various senses in Indian literature. According to Manu Smrti, Dharma is characterized by what is contained in the Veda, in the Smrti, and in what is involved in the conduct of good and noble people, as also what is good for one's inner soul. In Sanskrit literature, the word 'Dharmasastra' is largely connected with all the Smrtis beginning with Manu and Yaajnavalkya and which is in conformity with the Vedas. The Dharma literature begins with the Dharma-sutras of Gautama, Baudhaayana and Aapastamba which appear to belong to the seventh to fourth centuries BC. In due course, the Dharma literature flourished extensively and as many as 100 Smrtis seem to have been composed; some of them are in prose, but many are in poetic form. Among the authors of the Smrtis, Manu is the foremost, and there have been a large number of commentaries on the Manu Smrti. Among these commentaries, the prominent ones are those of Medhaatithi, Govindaraja, Kullukabhatta, Narayana, Raghavananda, Nandana and Ramachandra.

The subject of Dharma has also been dealt with in some detail in the Bhagavad-Gita, which is the greatest gospel of Karmayoga, and in which we find the greatest ancient synthesis of Karma, Jnana and Bhakti. The Bhagavad-Gita recognizes an evolutionary system of Dharma, by means of which the individual and the society can be helped in their evolutionary and progressive development towards perfection. In the course of this development, there are also important concepts of Svadharma and Svakarma. And in the culminating chapter of the Gita, we find Lord Krishna asking Arjuna to renounce all dharmas and to surrender to the Supreme Divine.

This vast and complex teaching of the Gita seems to be inherent in the teaching of the Veda, which is also the original synthesis of Karma, Jnana and Bhakti. The master concept of the Veda from which the concept of Dharma developed in the later period is that of Ritam. Ritam and Satyam seem to be interchangeable, but there is a certain distinction between the two in so far as Satyam may be regarded to be truth, and Ritam to be right. In fact, the full formula of perfection as defined in the Veda is Satyam, Ritam, and Brhat. Brhat or the vast is the fundamental perspective of the truth. Where there is limitation, there is partiality, and there is imperfection or distortion of truth. It is only in the context of the vast infinitude that truth can be apprehended, comprehended and known, and it is only when truth is known that right action can proceed. This is the significance of the trinity of Satyam, Ritam and Brhat.

If we keep firm on this original meaning of Ritam, we can appreciate the entire development of the concept of Dharma in Indian literature. Dharma is that which holds us, which gives us cohesion and which keeps us fixed on the progressive path of development and growth. In this context, there cannot be a static Dharma, and there cannot be one uniform Dharma for all human beings and for all levels of life. What is right for a Tamasika (dull) being cannot be right for the Rajasika (passionate or dynamic), and what is right for the Rajasika cannot be right for the Rattvika (pure and luminous). And since Sattvika is still not the highest, what is right for the Sattvika cannot be binding on the one who transcends even the golden fetters of the Sattva. The one who transcends the chain of Tamas, Rajas, and Sattva and enters into the infinitude, the Brhat of the Veda, he becomes capable of transcending all dharmas, which are appropriate to lower developments through Tamas, Rajas, and Sattva. He is liberated from egoistic limitations, he becomes capable of total surrender to the Supreme, and in a state of comprehension of the truth, Satyam, and he becomes capable of the right action, Ritam.

It is against this background of the concept of Ritam and Dharma that we can better appreciate the entire history of the Dharmasastra in India where there has been strict insistence on adherence to social law and yet complex and flexible application of it, and even a supervening tendency to preach transcendence of all good and evil and all the binding chains of Dharma.

We come next to Nirukta. Nirukta is a kind of commentary on Nighantu, which is a collection of difficult words of the Veda. Nighantu is supposed to have been one meaning, and in the fourth chapter, it gives a collection of those words, which have several meanings. In the fifth chapter, the names of Vedic gods have been collected. There have been many commentaries on Nighantu, but it is the commentary of Yaksha, which has found its place as one of the Vedaangas, and this Vedaanga is known as Nirukta. Nirukta is not confined only to meanings of words; it traces the words to their originals, and it indicates how different similar or dissimilar words arose from those origins. The principle that all names originated from verbs is an important principle of Nirukta, and even modern linguists accept this principle. It is believed that Yaksha lived some time between the tenth and eighth centuries BC. Prior to Yaksha also, there were many methods and systems of Vedic interpretation, such as Aadhi-daivata, Aadhyaatma, Aakhyaana-Samaya, Aitihaasika, Naidaana, Paarivraaajaka, Yaajnika, etc. By the time we come to Yaksha, the original meanings of many words had become obscure, and he mentions several words where there is no certainty of their meanings.

According to a belief propounded by Kautsa, Vedas have no meaning. Yaksha opposed this belief and he said:

Sthanuraya bharaharaha kilaabhut adheetya vedaan na vijaanaati yo dharma.

Yo arthajna ith sakalam bhadramasrute. Naakameti jnaanavidhutpaapma.

He has thus compared him who does not know the meaning of the Veda, to an inert bearer of Veda. According to him, one who attains to the knowledge of meaning becomes free from sin and proceeds towards heaven.

There have been several commentaries on Nirukta such as those of Durgacharya, Skanda Maheshwara and Vararuchi.

Nirukta deals with various subjects, which are very close to grammar or Vyakarana, and therefore Nirukta is often considered to be a part of Vyakarana. However, Vyakarana is considered to be a principal part of the six Vedaangas. Vyakarana is looked upon as the mouth among the Vedaangas. According to the ancient tradition, Brahma was the first to expound vyakarana, and he was followed by grammarians like Brhaspati,Indra, Maheshwara, etc. The most celebrated author of vyakarana is Panini, who has himself mentioned several great names of the great grammarians. Panini's famous book is Ashtadhyayi, in which he has discussed both Vedic and non-Vedic words. There have been numerous grammarians who followed Panini from first century BC up to fourteenth century AD. Some believe that Paanini belonged to seventh century BC, while others place him in the fourth century AD. According to Yudhishtira Mimaansaka, Panini belonged to 2900 years before the beginning of the Vikram Era, which is supposed to be 200 years after the Mahabharata war.

One of the greatest commentaries on vyakarana is that of Patanjali. This is supposed to be the most authentic book on Panini's Vyakarana. The authenticity of Patanjali's commentary is so great that wherever there is a difference of opinion between Sutra, Vaarttika and Mahabhashya, the verdict of the Mahabhashya of Patanjali is regarded to be ultimately acceptable. According to Western scholars, Patanjali belonged to second century BC. According to Yudhishthira Mimansaka, Patanjali belonged to 2000 or 1200 years before the Vikram Era.

In sixteenth century AD, the method of the study of grammar propounded by Panini began to be replaced to some extent by the tradition of Kaatantra. In that tradition, Siddhanta Kaumudi of Bhattoji Dikshit and Prakriya Sarvasa of Narayana Bhatta are most prominent. Vyakarana developed also in the field of philosophy, and Bhartrihari who belonged to the sixth century AD initiated this.

The composition of the Vedas indicates consummate development of the knowledge of the poetic meter, chhandas. The first discussion on Vedic meters is to be found in the Saankhyaayana Srauta-sutra. But the classical work on meters is that of Maharshi Pingal. Meters or chhandas have been studied by Pingal in the eighth chapter of his book Chhandah-sutra. In this book, he has taken into account not only Vedic meters but also others. There are mainly seven Vedic meters, namely, Gayatri, Ushnik, Anushtubh, Brhati, Pankti, Trishtubh, and Jagati. According to Kaatyaayana, the highest number of mantras in the Rig-Veda is to be found in Trishtubh. This number is 4253. Gayatri has 24 67 mantras; Ushnik has 341 mantras; Pankti has 312 mantras, and Brahti has 181 mantras. Although there are numerous meters, we find only 50 meters in the Sanskrit literature.

Prior to Pingalacharya, there were several great teachers of Chhanda Sastra, such as Koshtuki, Yaksha, Kaashyapa and Maandavya. There have been several commentaries on the Chhanda-sutra of Pingalacharya. In fact, there has been a continuous development of books on Chhanda Sastra.

The development of musical science also owed a great deal to Chhanda Sastra. It is well known that the Sama-Veda is to sing. Although the method of singing the Sama is different from that of classical music, the seven tunes, namely, shadja, rishabha, gandhara, madhyama, panchama, dhaivata, and nishaada are used in Sama in the same way as in classical music. In the Chhaandogya Upanisad which is based upon the Sama-Veda, five types of musical renderings of the Sama have been indicated, namely, Himkaara, Prastaava, Udgitha, Pratihaar and Nidhaan. It is noteworthy that Vedic literature refers also to several musical instruments, including the veena. In social life, too, because of the close connection between religious rites and music, various melodies developed, particularly six melodies corresponding to the six seasons. Closely connected with music was the development of dance and drama. Among the important works in Sanskrit regarding music, dance and drama the most important one is Naatya Sastra of Bharat Muni. There are two Samhitas on Natya Sastra, namely, Dwaadasha Sahasri and Shat Sahasri. The traditions established by Bharat Muni remained prevalent for more than a thousand years, and even in the book Sangeet Ratnaakar or Sharangadeva of thirteenth century AD, the authority of Bharat Muni has been acknowledged. Thereafter also there has been a vast literature on music, dance and drama. In fact, music, dance, and drama received royal patronage throughout the ages, and some of the great kings of the north and south were themselves great musicians.

Closely connected with Siksha, Chhandas and Vyakarana, there is a body of literature known as Praatisaakhya. For each Veda and for each sakha there are certain specific rules, and these rules deal with various subjects connected with pronunciation, meters, and other grammatical matters. The meaning of the Veda is also indicated in the Praatisaakhya, and it is therefore considered to be an aid to the study of the concerned Veda. The Rik Praatisaakhya deals with the Saishiriya Upasaakha of the Saakala sakha of the Rig-Veda. Maharshi Shaunaka is the author. The great commentator Uvat has written a commentary on this Praatisaakhya. It is believed that the Rk Praatisaakhya was composed between the fifth and sixth centuries AD.

Kaatyaayana who belonged to a period earlier than that of Panini composed Vajasaneyi Praatisaakhya. Uvat and Anantabhatta have written, respectively, Matriveda and Padaarthaprakashaka to elucidate the Praatisaakhya of Katyayana. Taittiriya Praatisaakhya is related to the Taittiriya Samhita of Krishna Yajur-Veda. The commentary has been written by Mahishi, which is known as Padakramasadana.

Pushpasutra and Riktantra are the two Praatisaakhyas on the Sama-Veda. The author of Pushpasutra is supposed to be Vararuchi, and the author of Riktantra is supposed to be Shaakatayaana.

The Chaturaadhyayika is the oldest Praatisaakhya of the Atharva-Veda. Kautsa is supposed to be the author of this Praatisaakhya, which is also known as Kautsa Vyakarana.

The sixth Vedaanga relates to Jyotisa - astronomy and astrology. Jyotisa is considered to be the science of light, and it is looked upon as the eyes among the Vedaangas. Vedic knowledge had discovered an inner rhythm cosmic movement, and this rhythm seems to correspond with periodic developments and seasons of human life. Time was conceived as a succession of movements that measure growth, development and fulfillment of human aspirations. Since human aspirations and sacrifice were closely connected with each other, the determination of the time of the beginning and the end of sacrifices assumed great importance. As a result, the transit of planets, calculation of days and nights and the determination of various seasons were closely studied. The science of Jyotisa described planets, constellations, comets and also the rotations and revolutions of various luminous objects of the heavens. Corresponding to the movements of planets there were also predictions in regard to fortunate or unfortunate results in human life. This is at the root of astrology.

Rig-Veda Jyotisa Vedaanga has been attributed to Lagadhaacharya. It consists of 36 verses. There is also a Jyotisa related to the Yajur-Veda and another related to Atharva-Veda. Yajur-Veda Jyotisa consists of 34 verses, and it has been attributed to Shoshaacharya. Atharva-Veda Jyotisa has 14 chapters and 102 verses. It is supposed to be a dialogue between Pitaamaha who was the speaker and Kashyapa who was the listener.

Among the greatest astronomers and astrologers of India, the most celebrated name is that of Varaahamihira. His famous book, Pancha Siddhaantika speaks of five systems of jyotisa: Pitamaha Siddhaanta, Vasistha Siddhaanta, Romaka Siddhaanta, Poulisha Siddhaanta, and Surya Siddhaanta. In due course, Jyotisa inspired the development of various sciences including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, astronomy, and astrology. Bhaskaraacharya of twelfth century AD is regarded as the first among the mathematicians and astrologers of the middle ages. Jyotisa is even today prevalent all over India, and it is even now a developing science. The Panchaanga, which gives detailed information regarding the tithi, vaara, nakshatra, yoga and karana, is commonly used in most Indian homes; and the annuals of the Panchaanga are constantly consulted by astronomers, astrologers and many individuals in day-to-day life.

Apart from this Vedaanga, there are also four other sciences and arts which have come to be known as Upavedas. The Upaveda of the Rig-Veda is Ayurveda, the Upaveda of the Yajur-Veda is Dhanurveda, the Upaveda of the Sama-Veda is Gandharvaveda, and the Upaveda of the Atharva-Veda is Arthaveda. Ayurveda is related to the secret of life and the science of long life. The originator of Ayurveda is supposed to be Dhanwantari. Apart from him, other prominent names are Aitareya, Kashyapa, Harit, Agnivesha, and Bhedamuni. At present, three important books of Ayurveda are: Charak Samhita, Sushruta Samhita and Vaagbhatta Samhita. These three books are collectively called Brihat-trayi.

Dhanurveda seems to be a very ancient science dealing with weapons of war and art of warfare. In the Ramayana and Mahabharata a good deal of light is thrown upon this science and art, particularly in the descriptions of battles. The most ancient books of Dhanurveda are not available, but some of the known books are Dhanurvidhi, Drauna Vidya, Kodanda Mandana and Dhanurveda Samhita. According to the tradition, the originator of Dhanurveda is Lord Shankara himself. Parashuraama is supposed to have learnt Dhanurveda from Lord Shankara. Dronaacharya learnt this science from Parasuraama, and Arjuna learnt it from Dronaacharya. Saattyaki is supposed to have learnt this science and art from Arjuna.

Gandharvaveda is the science of music, derived from the Sama-Veda, and we have already dealt with this subject briefly, while dealing with the Vedaanga of Chhandas.

Artha-Veda is the Upaveda of the Atharva-Veda, which deals with social, economic, and political systems. It also deals with architecture and various arts. According to Shukra-niti there are a number of arts but 64 are considered to be more prominent. In later literature we find that 64 arts or kalaas are enumerated expected to be cultivated by any cultured lady. These include the art of cooking, skill in the use of body ointments and paints for the teeth, etc, music, dancing, painting, garland-making, floor decoration, preparation of the bed, proper use and care of dress and ornaments, sewing, elementary carpentry, repair of household tools and articles, reading, writing and understanding different languages, composing poems, understanding dramas, physical exercises, recreation from utilizing leisure hours, and the art of preparing toys for children.

For a proper understanding of the Veda, not only Vedaangas but also Itihasa and Puranas have been recommended. From the point of view of history (itihasa), the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Puranas are consulted. But in Indian literature the word 'itihasa' refers mainly to Mahabharata. Maharshi Valmiki is the author of the Ramayana and Maharshi Vedavyasa composed the Mahabharata. According to the tradition, the word Purana is so called because it is supposed to refer to the most ancient knowledge, even though the most ancient composition is that of the Veda. It is said that Brahma had received the knowledge containing the Puranas from the Supreme Divine; Brahma transmitted it to his four mind-born sons, including Sanatkumara, and he transmitted it to Krshna Dwaipayana Vedavyasa. Vedavyasa composed that knowledge in 18 books; each one of them is called a Purana.

The names of these Puranas are given in the following table along with the number of verses mentioned against each.

There are also a number of Upapuranas, such as Narasimha, Nandi, Bhaargava, etc.

The Puranas have been composed to explain the meanings of Vedas to the common masses of people so as to evoke in them sensitivity in their being towards Divine-knowledge and to inspire in them devotion for the Supreme Reality. The Puranas describe the creation of the universe, development of the universe, and the dissolution of the universe. In several Puranas, there is a good deal of description of the earth and its geography, and apart from many legends, there is also a description of secret knowledge relating to birth, death and the condition of the soul after the death of the body. We also find in them questions and answers dealing with philosophic and yogic matters. Most importantly, the Puranas are related to great deities, particularly Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The Bhagavata-purana is considered to be the most valuable book on Lord Krishna, and it is looked upon as an unparalleled composition on the theme of Shri Krishna and devotion to Shri Krishna. The Puranas are also related to several other deities and great rishis of the past. An important contribution of the Purana is related to the concept of avatara and the description of various avataras of the Supreme Divine.

Purana literature is very vast and it has made a great impact on the religious and spiritual mind of India.

The tradition of philosophy in India goes back to very early times, and based upon the Veda, several systems of philosophy have flourished. These systems are: Nyaaya, Vaisesika, Saankhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa. All these systems of philosophy accept the authority of the Veda, and although there are differences among them, attempts have also been made to bring about a synthesis of these systems of philosophy. The literature on these systems is to be found in the Sutras attributed to great philosophers such as Gautama, Kanada, Kapila, Patanjali, Jaimini and Baadaraayana, and in copious commentaries and commentaries on commentaries. In fact, even in the modern period there are expositions and commentaries on these systems of philosophy.